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Presentation & Paper
Delivered to the Psychology of Leadership Class, UMHB
Dr. Cecilia Erlund, Professor
10/12/07
Throughout my life, I have developed leadership qualities as I
have observed other leaders. I have identified three basic categories of
leadership traits related to the Greek concepts of Logos, Pathos, and Ethos. I
have seen that effective leaders display knowledge and wisdom, empathy and
passion, and credibility and inspiration. According to a review of literature on
the psychology of leadership, leaders, especially those effective over time,
commonly exhibit the following:
·
Inquiring mind
·
Determined drive to improve the status quo
·
Eager willingness to move in new directions
·
Strong sense of social responsibility
·
Resilient ability to recover from criticism
·
Open attitude toward learning from mistakes
·
Persistent interest in encouraging and inspiring others
·
Positive channeling of anxiety and energy toward productive
activity
These leadership qualities are related to the marks of Internal Locus of Control
that my own research has addressed. Today I plan to address leaders as role
models who may profoundly affect achievement motivation in observers. I plan to
present an overview of my research on the Relationship of Role Models to the
Internal Locus of Control in Observers, which I hope will be of interest and
assistance to your Psychology of Leadership class. A Review of Literature
provides evidence that Effective Leaders display Internal Locus of Control. My
research has provided evidence that Role Models with Internal Locus of Control
may further inspire observers to develop Internal Locus of Control, Motivation
and Leadership.
My research has provided evidence of the power of role models to significantly
affect achievement motivation in observers. In 1996, I provided evidence that
the variable of locus of control,
which is considered a reliable and
valid construct and predictor of achievement, could be affected and changed by
the identification of role models in female college students. Further, I
presented evidence, which supported the idea that female college students
who identified role models had stronger internal locus of control than did those
who did not identify role models. I have expanded, with my students and alumni,
the investigation of the relationship between role models and locus of control
(defined more fully in this paper). This research has studied the relationship
between role modeling through videoconferences and locus of control in college
audience members. These studies have involved presenters, who have been
upper-division African American student presenters, who have presented to
African American lower-division students in a distance, African American history
program. This research has provided evidence of direction toward Internal Locus
of Control in observers of role models who demonstrate Internal Locus of
Control.
Evidence Related to Cognitive and Social Learning Theories
In
recent decades, cognitive learning theories have developed, which have focused
on achievement motivation in terms of attributions and observations. Rotter has
contributed to cognitive theories of recent decades with his Social Learning
Theory, a social-personality theory that describes individuals in terms of their
tendencies to attribute success or failure to internal or external factors.
Rotter (1971) wrote:
…the extent to which a person believes that he can control what
happens to him is
referred to as a belief in internal control of reinforcement. A belief that one is
controlled by luck, fate, or
others, is referred to as a belief in external
control of reinforcement. (p. 61)
Weiner (1979),
likewise, has provided a systematic achievement motivation theory, which begins
with the assumption that students attribute their successes and failures
to internal or external causes. Those who attribute their successes to internal
causes seem to have a greater degree of achievement motivation than those who
attribute their successes to external causes.
One
facet of research regarding locus of control concerns how it affects people’s
perceptions of themselves. Locus of control seems to affect people’s perception
of rewards they receive as being controlled by internal factors, such as their
personal ability, effort, or skill, or as controlled by external factors, such
as chance, luck, or other people. Peoples’ perceptions of their environments, as
determined by skill or chance, seem to influence positive or negative shifts of
achievement expectancy. In addition, there are other characteristics that have
emerged as results of individuals' perceptions of their environments as
personally or externally controlled. Weiner (1979) writes that research
investigations suggest that people classified as internal in locus of control
display more information-seeking behavior and make better use of this
information than people classified as external in locus of control.
My related investigations have been especially important for female and African
American students. I have presented evidence from my research that suggests the
following:
·
Female subjects who identify female role models have stronger
internal locus of control than female subjects who do not identify female role
models.
·
Locus of control in female subjects is a changeable variable.
·
Internal locus of control in female subjects increases over the
first year of college in those who have female role models.
·
Internal locus of control decreases over the first year of college
in female students who do not have female role models.
·
Internal locus of control in African American, community college
students increases in a semester in those who identify role models.
Thus,
my findings suggest a factor, which may strengthen internal locus of control in
first-year, female, coeducational, college students and in African American,
community college students. This factor may strengthen their achievement
motivation.
Evidence Related to
Observation and Achievement Theories
Cognitive and social learning theories have included the issue of learning by
observation. Bandura (1977) asserted, "Most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how
new behaviors are performed…Models who possess engaging qualities are sought
out…" (p. 22-23).
Evidence exists related to the question of the relationship of internal locus of
control and role models in coeducational, college settings. Strengthening the
internal locus of control in students seems to be related to improving
achievement of students and seems to point towards a solution for female and
minority under-achievement and under-representation. Achievement theory includes
"expectancy value," which describes how hard one works at achievement as
determined by one's expectancy of success and his/her valuing of that success.
Weiner (1979) states that achievement motivation involves determination to:
accomplish something difficult; organize; or master others, objects, or ideas.
In Weiner’s theory of motivation (1986) he contends, "…individuals classified as
high versus low in achievement needs exhibit opposing risk preferences when
given tasks differing in perceived difficulty…persons labeled high in
achievement needs are predicted to exhibit different risk-taking behavior than
persons low in achievement needs” (p. 10).
Locus of Control
Rotter
(1966) identifies Locus of Control as the extent to which persons perceive that
events in their lives are contingent upon their own behavior or own
characteristics. Locus of control can be operationally measured by Rotter's
Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (1966). Stone and Jackson state (1975)
that persons with internal locus of control believe they have control over
reinforcing events in their lives. Individuals with internal locus of control
attribute change to their actions. They believe and act as though they control
their own futures and see themselves as effective in determining the occurrence
of reinforcing events. People with external locus of control attribute change to
external sources. They believe, report, or act as though forces beyond their
control (such as fate, chance, powerful others, social constraints, or
instructions) are important factors in determining the occurrence of reinforcing
events. Persons with external locus of control perceive that reinforcement
follows some action of their own but is not entirely contingent upon their
action. Rotter (1966) explains that they believe that reinforcement is "the
result of luck, chance, fate, as under the control of powerful others, or is
unpredictable because of the great complexity of the forces" (p. 227).
Role Model
Anderson & Ramsey (1990) state that a role model is an adult who has qualities
or skills that a person "…admires and wishes to emulate… The process of
observing can take place without direct interaction between the observer and the
role model. It is possible that the role model may not be aware of his or
her…influence on another person” (p.183).
Role
models in Social Learning Theory have been defined as examples to imitate and as
ones perceived by observers as similar to themselves. This similarity may be
significant in terms of race and gender. Basow & Howe (1980) have contended that
"The social learning viewpoint states that children imitate same-sex models more
than opposite-sex ones due to…perceived similarity to the model" (p. 559).
Researchers have defined role models in terms of human examples, whom observers
can imitate and from whom observers can receive reinforcement. Almquist &
Angrist (1971) have contended that role models go beyond providing simple
technical how-to information, by setting norms and values, providing recognition
and reward for achievements, and orienting behaviors on a certain course.
Bell’s investigations (1970) have led him to define role modeling in terms of
two processes: identification and interaction. Identification with the role
model by the individual involved any or all of the following: perceived
similarity between the individual and role model, imitation by the individual of
the role model, and assimilation by the individual of the role model's attitudes
and values. Bell has contended that interaction occurred in different spheres of
life.
Social Learning
Theory and Locus of Control
Social learning theory involves individuals' goals, expectancies, and social
reinforcements. Rotter (1971) states, "According to social learning theory,
man's behavior is determined by his goals. Behavior is always directional. An
individual responds with those behaviors that he has learned will lead to the
greatest satisfaction in a given situation" (p. 58). Strain (1993) explains that
Social Learning Theory has proposed that the probability of a behavior occurring
is related to an individual's expectancy that the behavior will gain
reinforcement and that the reinforcement has value to the individual.
Bandura (1977) has defined Social Learning Theory in terms of personal and
environmental interactions. He says, "In the social learning view, people are
neither driven by inner forces nor buffeted by environmental stimuli. Rather,
psychological functioning is explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal
interaction of personal and environmental determinants" (p. 11-12). Bandura has
contended that the issue of locus of control as a behavioral determinant is
related to reinforcement influences and to environmental stimuli.
Locus of control has been a valuable
construct in studying many important attributes related to professional
achievement. From the 1970’s through the 1980’s, researchers have provided
evidence of the following:
·
Subjects with internal locus
of control are more cognitively able.
·
They are more mentally aware.
·
Internal persons are better
predisposed to learning.
·
Persons with internal locus
of control are more motivated than are persons with external locus of control.
·
Internal persons possess more information regarding their status
in certain institutions.
·
They are more able to
perceive relevant information.
·
Persons with internal locus of control are more prepared to seek
necessary information in experimental tasks than are external persons.
Erlund (1984) explains that Rotter describes persons with internal
locus of control as demonstrating more overt striving for achievement than
persons with external locus of control, who seem to feel that they have little
control over their rewards and punishments. Deci (1975), Weiner (1972, 1978),
and Parsons (1983) have seen internal locus of control as a facilitator of
achievement in relation to attributions. Lefcourt (1981, 1983) and Strain (1993)
explain that researchers have found that students who believe they could
influence the outcome of their work are more likely to be motivated in academic
studies.
Coleman (1966), Weiner (1978), and Parsons (1983) identify an extensive body of
literature that supports the premise that students with internal locus of
control show higher achievement motivation than students with external locus of
control. Crandall, Katkovsky, & Preston (1962), Crandall, Katkovsky, & Crandall
(1965), Coleman (1966), Weiner (1978), Parsons (1983), and Strain (1993) present
research studies that have supported the idea that individuals who score high on
achievement motivation assume personal responsibility for their work and
attribute success to something they personally do, rather than to luck or ease
of task.
Erlund (1984) quotes Joe (1971) as stating that Locus of Control
research supports the hypothesis
…that internals not only will
show more initiative and effort in controlling
their environments but also
control their own impulses better than externals…
it
appears safe to conclude that internals, in contrast to externals, would
show
a greater tendency to seek information
and adopt
behavior patterns
which facilitate personal control over their environments… (p.
20)
Further, Erlund quotes Roueche
& Mink (1976), as they present evidence that suggests that those with internal
locus of control
…have a higher self-concept and are generally better adjusted, more
independent,
more achieving, more realistic
in their aspirations, more open to
new learning,
more creative, more flexible,
more self-reliant, show more
initiative and effort in
controlling the environment, are less
anxious, have higher grades, show more interest
in intellectual and
achievement matters, etc.…It would seem reasonable then
to try
and aid
people in changing to a more internal orientation, to help them realize
the
contingencies between their own
behavior and relevant aspects of
their environment…
thus increasing the efficiency effectiveness of their
behaviors. (p. 19-20)
Evidence has suggested that persons with internal locus of control are more
independent, cognitively able, mentally aware, predisposed to learning, and
motivated than persons are with external locus of control. Therefore, it seems
that the possibility of increasing persons’ internal locus of control may be
significant in improving their academic and professional performance. It appears
that information concerning the relationship between internal locus in students
and their observation of role models may be of further value. My research has
provided evidence that suggests that there is a relationship between locus of
control in college students and their identification of role models. My research
studies have also provided evidence that suggests that locus of control in
college students tends to become increasingly more internal when the students
have role models.
Further Review of Research Literature
Dr. Lucinda Harman, Dr. Stan Dyer of
Central Texas
College, and UMHB African American, Performance Studies Students/Alumni, and I
have conducted related research. Our investigations have concerned African
American, college students at Central Texas College and their identification of
role models. Measurement tools have included a locus of control scale and my
questionnaire related to the students' identification of role models. The first
purpose of this study has been to investigate locus of control as a
changeable variable in African American, college students. The second
purpose of the study has been to investigate the relationship of internal locus
of control between African American, college students and the identification of
role models. This study has been built on a review of literature in the fields
of education, psychology, industry, and labor.
In
educational research literature, there have been two leading theories and many
research projects directly pertinent to this study. Weiner has provided a theory
of attribution, and Bandura has provided a theory of observational learning from
models. Studies of many educational researchers support the ideas that having
models can influence professional choices, academic and professional success,
self-esteem, positive attitudes, and career salience in students and in
professionals. Lentz (1980) and Masih (1966) have described Career Salience as
(a) the degree to which a person is career motivated, (b) the degree to which an
occupation is important as a source of satisfaction, and (c) the degree of
priority ascribed to the occupation among other sources of satisfaction. Lentz
contends that Career Salience is a factor, which has been considered predictive
of career orientation and probable career success. Finally, research has
provided evidence of locus of control as a significant factor in achievement
motivation and professional attainment.
In
review, Weiner (1986) has asserted that people attribute their successes and
failures to internal or external reinforcers. He has contended that internal
persons attribute successes and failures to their ability or to their
effort. Internal persons attribute their performance to causes for which they
assume personal responsibility. External persons attribute their performance to
factors for which they have no responsibility and for which they have no
control.
Bandura's theory of observational learning (1969) has concerned learning from
models. He has asserted that many behaviors are acquired through observing and
imitating other people. He has contended that new patterns of behavior are
learned through observing behavior without the observer overtly responding or
receiving any reinforcements in the exposure setting. Bandura (1977) has written
further, "Modeling influences…can create generative and innovative behavior" (p.
40-41). He has argued that observers watch models performing responses, which
embody a certain principle. Later the observers behave in a way stylistically
similar to the model’s behavior. Even though the observer is not mimicking the
model’s specific responses, the observer applies what he/she has learned from
the model to a new, but related, situation.
Furthermore, Bandura and Walters have asserted that instructors as role models
have three types of effects on students. The first is the “modeling effect,”
which involves the student’s direct imitation of the model’s behavior. The
second is the “disinhibitory effect,” which involves the student’s observing the
consequences of the model’s actions and consequently choosing behavior in
opposition, if the model’s observed consequences are undesirable. (A current
application of this concept might concern female or ethnic minority faculty
members. If they are regarded with low esteem by school administrators and are
not treated as equals, the effect may be to inhibit female and ethnic minority
students' aspirations toward the teaching profession.) The third modeling effect
is the "eliciting effect," which involves the increased susceptibility in a
student to the influence of the role model. For example, a minority teacher who
holds high expectations for minority students' achievement may have an increased
probability of influencing the students' performance through cues, which elicit
positive responses in the students.
Academic achievement has been related to the construct of locus of
control in educational literature. Strain (1993) has studied locus of control as
a predictor variable related to academic persistence and achievement motivation.
She has asserted that
…other educational researchers predict that…students with internal locus of
control will persist longer in college…the findings of previous studies…warrant
the conclusion that locus of control should be prominent in any current
examination of motivation. Further, research findings accumulated over the last
20 years affirm the importance of locus of control as a factor in the motivation
of students. (p. 6)
In
discussing academic persistence and motivation, Strain (1993) has discussed
internal locus of control as a valuable construct. She has stated, "…other than
identifying locus of control as an important motivational factor, research has
revealed little about the complex relationship between student motivational
behavior and persistence in college" (p.7). She has asserted that the process of
motivation is complex but clearly related to locus of control. Strain has
stressed that studying student motivation is important in that it is linked to
student retention and achievement. She has contended that lack of motivation is
associated with the withdrawal of students from college. She has argued,
however, that although factors of intrinsic motivation are a basis for students'
persistence behavior, only one, concrete, measurable, motivational factor, that
of locus of control, has been identified in research. Strain (1993) has asserted
that the construct of locus of control has been uniquely valuable in studying
academic persistence:
…research conducted in the late 70s…conducted at multiple
institutions
with large numbers of students, reported findings that locus of
control
was related to persistence…All…studies found that students who were
more
internal persisted at higher rates. (p. 31)
The studies Strain (1993)) has discussed have contributed major findings related
to locus of control as a factor in persistence. These findings have defined an
aspect of weak motivation and have identified "…a motivational factor which was
amenable to intervention” (p. 31). Strain has contended that motivational theory
is foundational to the study of persistence.
Strain (1993) has discussed motivational theory as that which aims
to account for changes in activity. She has referred to the work of
Atkinson (1964)
and Atkinson & Feather (1966)
concerning motivation and persistence:
Intrinsic
motivation relates to the character of the motivation that is described
by goal
commitment. Thus, an examination of the principles of
motivational
theory could assist in identifying factors of motivation that may be basic to
student persistence. (p. 30-31)
In summary, educational research has provided evidence of locus of control as a
significant factor in achievement motivation. Evidence of this construct as
predicting academic persistence and of role modeling as affecting academic
success has also been found in educational literature. Further, educational
research has provided evidence that role modeling by professionals affects
self-esteem, professional choices, career salience, and professional success in
students.
Studies in the field of psychology have also provided evidence of locus of
control as a changeable variable, which is affected by modeling. Studies in this
field have further addressed the relationship of modeling to change, the
relationship of models to locus of control, and the relationship of
investigation of knowledge (cognitive inquiry) to locus of control. Stebbins
(1975) describes studies in counseling psychology that have investigated the use
of models to motivate change by observational learning.
Dowling and Frantz (1975) have reported the results of a study designed to test
the hypothesis that a facilitative model, one that communicates empathy,
respect, and genuineness, enhances imitative learning by an observer. The
results have provided evidence that "…if the counselor offers certain
facilitative conditions …with a client, the client will be come more
self-directing, more open, and flexible… " (p. 263). Numerous other studies in
the field of psychology have also investigated internal locus as a changeable
variable and as a variable which can be affected by modeling.
Stone & Jackson (1975) have explored the relationship between locus of control,
modeling, and instructional effectiveness in a study using university students,
divided into "internals" and "externals" according to scores on Mirel's Factor
of Personality
Internality (1970) Their studies have indicated that modeling is instructionally
effective. Fry (1975) has also investigated subjects engaged in occupational
information and vocational exploration. He has found that high cognitive
inquiry, high "internal" subjects have made significant gains in all treatments
but have learned most under a high degree of their own control of information
studied. Fry has contended that the high internal, high inquiry subject types
have had a better predisposition to learning; therefore, their gains have been
superior in all treatment groups.
In summary, literature in the field of psychology has provided evidence related
to the following:
·
Locus of control is a changeable variable.
·
There is a positive relationship between role models and locus of control.
·
A
positive relationship between cognitive inquiry and locus of control exists.
·
There is a positive relationship between role models and change.
In 1994, in order to enhance understanding of the extent to which faculty’s
race, gender, and ethnicity affected student achievement outcomes, the ILR-Cornell
Institute for Labor Market Policies sponsored a conference, “Role Models in
Education.” Six of the papers presented at the conference, entitled "Symposium:
Role Models in Education,” were published in the April 1995 issue of The
Industrial and Labor Relations Review. In an introduction to the series,
Ehrenberg presented an overview and review of the papers. He asserted that
policies abound to increase the number of under-represented faculty in American
schools and universities. These policies have been developed to provide
employment for representatives of groups who have historically suffered
discrimination. They have been designed, furthermore, to provide role models for
minority students to enhance their educational performances. He stated that it
is generally believed that increasing the proportion of minority teachers leads
to improvements in minority academic performance and retention. Ehrenburg (1995)
has projected the hoped-for results of increasing minority faculty:
·
Increasing the number of minority faculty at predominantly white institutions
will improve the attractiveness of these schools to minority students.
·
Increasing minority faculty will improve the possibility of minority students
graduating.
·
Increasing the minority faculty populations will stimulate the flow of minority
students into higher education and into academic careers.
In their conference paper on the effects of role modeling, “Do
Teachers’ Race, Gender, and Ethnicity Matter,” Ehrenberg, Goldhaber & Brewer
(1995) have reported their findings concerning the influence of teachers’ race,
gender, and ethnicity on their subjective evaluations of their students.
Ehrenberg has presented the findings of Rothstein and himself that attendance at
historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) substantially increases the
probability that African American, college students will graduate within seven
years of starting college. This may be due to the greater likelihood of teachers
and students being of the same race in HBCUs.
In the role modeling symposium paper, “The Effect of Attending
Historically Black Colleges and Universities on Future Wages of Black Students,”
Constantine (1995) has presented her findings that African American students who
attend HBCUs receive higher earnings than they do if they attend non-HBCUs, in
some cases approximately 35% more. Again, this may be due to the greater
availability of role models of the same race as the students.
Two papers from the role modeling conference, dealt with the importance of
female faculty as role models in higher education: "Changes in Women's Majors
from Entrance to Graduation at Women's and Coeducational Colleges" by Solnick,
and "Do Female Faculty Influence Female Students' Educational and Labor Market
Attainments?" by Rothstein. Solnick (1995) has found evidence to support her
theory that women who begin in traditionally female majors are more likely to
shift to other majors, if they attend a women's college. She has found that
women at female colleges, where there were more female role models, were more
likely to risk leaving female-dominated majors than women in coed colleges. She
has concluded that single‑sex schools may benefit female students by providing
them more flexibility to move into majors in traditionally male-dominated fields
that tend to be more rewarded in the labor market. In her study, the women's
colleges yielded fewer graduates in female-dominated fields and more graduates
in male-dominated fields than did the coed colleges. She has stated, “Since
wages…depend in part…on field of study…determinants of college major may further
understanding of labor market discrimination (p. 513).
Rothstein (1995) has addressed the low percentage of female university faculty
in the United States and the possible long term effect on female students'
advanced educational and market attainments:
There is…concern that the percentage of female faculty at U.S.
colleges…
universities is too low…the New York Times (1993) emphasized this
issue…
that whereas about 20% of faculty…are women, the percentage of
undergraduate
women is more than double that figure. The question arises as to
how female
students might benefit from an increase in the percentage of female
faculty.
One view is that female faculty act as mentors and role models for
female
students, and thus promote their subsequent educational and labor market
attainments. (p. 515)
Rothstein (1995) has studied the question of the influence of female faculty on
female, coeducational college students' post-graduate achievements using data
from the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972. The
results of her study have shown a statistically positive relationship between
the percentage of female faculty and the probability that female students will
attain advanced degrees. She has stated that
The influence of the percentage of female faculty is
especially interesting, because
it may be that by acting as role models, or (indirectly) creating a favorable
environment at the institution, female faculty may influence the career paths
of female students. (p. 516)
In conclusion, literature in the fields of education, psychology, labor, and
industry has provided evidence of a positive relationship between locus of
control in college students and role modeling. Studies indicate that Internal
Locus of Control, self-esteem, career salience, and achievement in college
students are positively related to the presence of role models who display
Internal Locus of Control. Leaders are not only significant in providing
direction and inspiration, but as they display Internal Locus of Control they
may, in fact, facilitate the development of Internal Locus of Control in
observers.
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