What is at Stake in Observation of Leaders

                              The Psychology of Leadership and Role-Modeling Influence         

       
     by Diane Howard, Ph.D.          

Presentation & Paper      
Delivered to the Psychology of Leadership Class, UMHB 
  Dr. Cecilia Erlund, Professor   
 10/12/07     

        Throughout my life, I have developed leadership qualities as I have observed other leaders. I have identified three basic categories of leadership traits related to the Greek concepts of Logos, Pathos, and Ethos. I have seen that effective leaders display knowledge and wisdom, empathy and passion, and credibility and inspiration. According to a review of literature on the psychology of leadership, leaders, especially those effective over time, commonly exhibit the following:

·        Inquiring mind

·        Determined drive to improve the status quo

·        Eager willingness to move in new directions

·        Strong sense of social responsibility

·        Resilient ability to recover from criticism

·        Open attitude toward learning from mistakes

·        Persistent interest in encouraging and inspiring others

·        Positive channeling of anxiety and energy toward productive activity
 

         These leadership qualities are related to the marks of Internal Locus of Control that my own research has addressed. Today I plan to address leaders as role models who may profoundly affect achievement motivation in observers. I plan to present an overview of  my research on the Relationship of Role Models to the Internal Locus of Control in Observers, which I hope will be of interest and assistance to your Psychology of Leadership class.  A Review of Literature provides evidence that Effective Leaders display Internal Locus of Control.  My research has provided evidence that Role Models with Internal Locus of Control may further inspire observers to develop Internal Locus of Control, Motivation and Leadership.  

          My research has provided evidence of the power of role models to significantly affect achievement motivation in observers. In 1996, I provided evidence that the variable of locus of control, which is considered a reliable and valid construct and predictor of achievement, could be affected and changed by the identification of role models in female college students. Further, I presented evidence, which supported the idea that female college students who identified role models had stronger internal locus of control than did those who did not identify role models. I have expanded, with my students and alumni, the investigation of the relationship between role models and locus of control (defined more fully in this paper). This research has studied the relationship between role modeling through videoconferences and locus of control in college audience members. These studies have involved presenters, who have been upper-division African American student presenters, who have presented to African American lower-division students in a distance, African American history program.  This research has provided evidence of direction toward Internal Locus of Control in observers of role models who demonstrate Internal Locus of Control.

Evidence Related to Cognitive and Social Learning Theories 

           In recent decades, cognitive learning theories have developed, which have focused on achievement motivation in terms of attributions and observations. Rotter has contributed to cognitive theories of recent decades with his Social Learning Theory, a social-personality theory that describes individuals in terms of their tendencies to attribute success or failure to internal or external factors. Rotter (1971) wrote: 

            …the extent to which a person believes that he can control what happens to him is referred to as a belief in internal control of
            reinforcement. A belief that one is controlled by luck, fate, or others, is referred to as a belief in external control of reinforcement. (p. 61)

            Weiner (1979), likewise, has provided a systematic achievement motivation theory, which begins with the assumption that students attribute their successes and failures to internal or external causes. Those who attribute their successes to internal causes seem to have a greater degree of achievement motivation than those who attribute their successes to external causes. 

            One facet of research regarding locus of control concerns how it affects people’s perceptions of themselves. Locus of control seems to affect people’s perception of rewards they receive as being controlled by internal factors, such as their personal ability, effort, or skill, or as controlled by external factors, such as chance, luck, or other people. Peoples’ perceptions of their environments, as determined by skill or chance, seem to influence positive or negative shifts of achievement expectancy. In addition, there are other characteristics that have emerged as results of individuals' perceptions of their environments as personally or externally controlled. Weiner (1979) writes that research investigations suggest that people classified as internal in locus of control display more information-seeking behavior and make better use of this information than people classified as external in locus of control. 

            My related investigations have been especially important for female and African American students. I have presented evidence from my research that suggests the following:
 

·        Female subjects who identify female role models have stronger internal locus of control than female subjects who do not identify female role models.

·        Locus of control in female subjects is a changeable variable.

·        Internal locus of control in female subjects increases over the first year of college in those who have female role models.

·        Internal locus of control decreases over the first year of college in female students who do not have female role models.

·        Internal locus of control in African American, community college students  increases in a semester in those who identify role models.
 

            Thus, my findings suggest a factor, which may strengthen internal locus of control in first-year, female, coeducational, college students and in African American, community college students. This factor may strengthen their achievement motivation.

Evidence Related to Observation and Achievement Theories

            Cognitive and social learning theories have included the issue of learning by observation. Bandura (1977) asserted, "Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed…Models who possess engaging qualities are sought out…" (p. 22-23).

            Evidence exists related to the question of the relationship of internal locus of control and role models in coeducational, college settings. Strengthening the internal locus of control in students seems to be related to improving achievement of students and seems to point towards a solution for female and minority under-achievement and under-representation. Achievement theory includes "expectancy value," which describes how hard one works at achievement as determined by one's expectancy of success and his/her valuing of that success. Weiner (1979) states that achievement motivation involves determination to: accomplish something difficult; organize; or master others, objects, or ideas. In Weiner’s theory of motivation (1986) he contends, "…individuals classified as high versus low in achievement needs exhibit opposing risk preferences when given tasks differing in perceived difficulty…persons labeled high in achievement needs are predicted to exhibit different risk-taking behavior than persons low in achievement needs” (p. 10).

Locus of Control 

            Rotter (1966) identifies Locus of Control as the extent to which persons perceive that events in their lives are contingent upon their own behavior or own characteristics.  Locus of control can be operationally measured by Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (1966).  Stone and Jackson state (1975) that persons with internal locus of control believe they have control over reinforcing events in their lives. Individuals with internal locus of control attribute change to their actions. They believe and act as though they control their own futures and see themselves as effective in determining the occurrence of reinforcing events. People with external locus of control attribute change to external sources. They believe, report, or act as though forces beyond their control (such as fate, chance, powerful others, social constraints, or instructions) are important factors in determining the occurrence of reinforcing events. Persons with external locus of control perceive that reinforcement follows some action of their own but is not entirely contingent upon their action. Rotter (1966) explains that they believe that reinforcement is "the result of luck, chance, fate, as under the control of powerful others, or is unpredictable because of the great complexity of the forces" (p. 227).

Role Model 

           Anderson & Ramsey (1990) state that a role model is an adult who has qualities or skills that a person "…admires and wishes to emulate… The process of observing can take place without direct interaction between the observer and the role model. It is possible that the role model may not be aware of his or her…influence on another person”  (p.183).

            Role models in Social Learning Theory have been defined as examples to imitate and as ones perceived by observers as similar to themselves. This similarity may be significant in terms of race and gender. Basow & Howe (1980) have contended that "The social learning viewpoint states that children imitate same-sex models more than opposite-sex ones due to…perceived similarity to the model" (p. 559). Researchers have defined role models in terms of human examples, whom observers can imitate and from whom observers can receive reinforcement. Almquist & Angrist (1971) have contended that role models go beyond providing simple technical how-to information, by setting norms and values, providing recognition and reward for achievements, and orienting behaviors on a certain course.

             Bell’s investigations (1970) have led him to define role modeling in terms of two processes: identification and interaction. Identification with the role model by the individual involved any or all of the following: perceived similarity between the individual and role model, imitation by the individual of the role model, and assimilation by the individual of the role model's attitudes and values. Bell has contended that interaction occurred in different spheres of life.

Social Learning Theory and Locus of Control  

            Social learning theory involves individuals' goals, expectancies, and social reinforcements. Rotter (1971) states, "According to social learning theory, man's behavior is determined by his goals. Behavior is always directional. An individual responds with those behaviors that he has learned will lead to the greatest satisfaction in a given situation" (p. 58). Strain (1993) explains that Social Learning Theory has proposed that the probability of a behavior occurring is related to an individual's expectancy that the behavior will gain reinforcement and that the reinforcement has value to the individual. 

            Bandura (1977) has defined Social Learning Theory in terms of personal and environmental interactions. He says, "In the social learning view, people are neither driven by inner forces nor buffeted by environmental stimuli. Rather, psychological functioning is explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction of personal and environmental determinants" (p. 11-12). Bandura has contended that the issue of locus of control as a behavioral determinant is related to reinforcement influences and to environmental stimuli.

            Locus of control has been a valuable construct in studying many important attributes related to professional achievement. From the 1970’s through the 1980’s, researchers have provided evidence of the following:  

·        Subjects with internal locus of control are more cognitively able.

·        They are more mentally aware.

·        Internal persons are better predisposed to learning.

·        Persons with internal locus of control are more motivated than are persons with external locus of control.

·        Internal persons possess more information regarding their status in certain institutions.

·        They are more able to perceive relevant information.

·        Persons with internal locus of control are more prepared to seek necessary information in experimental tasks than are external persons.  

            Erlund (1984) explains that Rotter describes persons with internal locus of control as demonstrating more overt striving for achievement than persons with external locus of control, who seem to feel that they have little control over their rewards and punishments.  Deci (1975), Weiner (1972, 1978), and Parsons (1983) have seen internal locus of control as a facilitator of achievement in relation to attributions. Lefcourt (1981, 1983) and Strain (1993) explain that researchers have found that students who believe they could influence the outcome of their work are more likely to be motivated in academic studies. 

            Coleman (1966), Weiner (1978), and Parsons (1983) identify an extensive body of literature that supports the premise that students with internal locus of control show higher achievement motivation than students with external locus of control. Crandall, Katkovsky, & Preston (1962), Crandall, Katkovsky, & Crandall (1965), Coleman (1966), Weiner (1978), Parsons (1983), and Strain (1993) present research studies that have supported the idea that individuals who score high on achievement motivation assume personal responsibility for their work and attribute success to something they personally do, rather than to luck or ease of task.

            Erlund (1984) quotes Joe (1971) as stating that Locus of Control research supports the hypothesis  

            …that internals not only will show more initiative and effort in controlling their environments but also control their own impulses            
            better than externals…it appears safe to conclude that internals, in contrast to externals, would show a greater tendency
            to seek information and adopt behavior patterns which facilitate personal control over their environments… (p. 20)

             Further, Erlund quotes Roueche & Mink (1976), as they present evidence that suggests that those with internal locus of control

           …have a higher self-concept and are generally better adjusted, more independent, more achieving, more realistic in their aspirations,
            more open to new learning, more creative, more flexible, more self-reliant, show more initiative and effort in controlling the environment,
            are less anxious, have higher grades, show more interest in intellectual and achievement matters, etc.…It would seem reasonable then to
            try and aid people in changing to a more internal orientation, to help them realize the contingencies between their own behavior
            and relevant aspects of their environment…thus increasing the efficiency effectiveness of their behaviors. (p. 19-20)

         Evidence has suggested that persons with internal locus of control are more independent, cognitively able, mentally aware, predisposed to learning, and motivated than persons are with external locus of control. Therefore, it seems that the possibility of increasing persons’ internal locus of control may be significant in improving their academic and professional performance. It appears that information concerning the relationship between internal locus in students and their observation of role models may be of further value. My research has provided evidence that suggests that there is a relationship between locus of control in college students and their identification of role models. My research studies have also provided evidence that suggests that locus of control in college students tends to become increasingly more internal when the students have role models.

Further Review of Research Literature 

            Dr. Lucinda Harman, Dr. Stan Dyer of Central Texas College, and UMHB African American, Performance Studies Students/Alumni, and I have conducted related research. Our investigations have concerned African American, college students at Central Texas College and their identification of role models. Measurement tools have included a locus of control scale and my questionnaire related to the students' identification of role models. The first purpose of this study has been to investigate locus of control as a changeable variable in African American, college students. The second purpose of the study has been to investigate the relationship of internal locus of control between African American, college students and the identification of role models. This study has been  built on a review of literature in the fields of education, psychology, industry, and labor.

            In educational research literature, there have been two leading theories and many research projects directly pertinent to this study. Weiner has provided a theory of attribution, and Bandura has provided a theory of observational learning from models. Studies of many educational researchers support the ideas that having models can influence professional choices, academic and professional success, self-esteem, positive attitudes, and career salience in students and in professionals. Lentz (1980) and Masih (1966) have described Career Salience as (a) the degree to which a person is career motivated, (b) the degree to which an occupation is important as a source of satisfaction, and (c) the degree of priority ascribed to the occupation among other sources of satisfaction. Lentz contends that Career Salience is a factor, which has been considered predictive of career orientation and probable career success. Finally, research has provided evidence of locus of control as a significant factor in achievement motivation and professional attainment.

            In review, Weiner (1986) has asserted that people attribute their successes and failures to internal or external reinforcers. He has contended that internal persons attribute successes and failures to their ability or to their effort. Internal persons attribute their performance to causes for which they assume personal responsibility. External persons attribute their performance to factors for which they have no responsibility and for which they have no control.

          Bandura's theory of observational learning (1969) has concerned learning from models. He has asserted that many behaviors are acquired through observing and imitating other people. He has contended that new patterns of behavior are learned through observing behavior without the observer overtly responding or receiving any reinforcements in the exposure setting. Bandura (1977) has written further, "Modeling influences…can create generative and innovative behavior" (p. 40-41). He has argued that observers watch models performing responses, which embody a certain principle. Later the observers behave in a way stylistically similar to the model’s behavior. Even though the observer is not mimicking the model’s specific responses, the observer applies what he/she has learned from the model to a new, but related, situation. 

            Furthermore, Bandura and Walters have asserted that instructors as role models have three types of effects on students. The first is the “modeling effect,” which involves the student’s direct imitation of the model’s behavior. The second is the “disinhibitory effect,” which involves the student’s observing the consequences of the model’s actions and consequently choosing behavior in opposition, if the model’s observed consequences are undesirable. (A current application of this concept might concern female or ethnic minority faculty members. If they are regarded with low esteem by school administrators and are not treated as equals, the effect may be to inhibit female and ethnic minority students' aspirations toward the teaching profession.) The third modeling effect is the "eliciting effect," which involves the increased susceptibility in a student to the influence of the role model. For example, a minority teacher who holds high expectations for minority students' achievement may have an increased probability of influencing the students' performance through cues, which elicit positive responses in the students.

            Academic achievement has been related to the construct of locus of control in educational literature. Strain (1993) has studied locus of control as a predictor variable related to academic persistence and achievement motivation. She has asserted that

…other educational researchers predict that…students with internal locus of control will persist longer in college…the findings of previous studies…warrant the conclusion that locus of control should be prominent in any current examination of motivation. Further, research findings accumulated over the last 20 years affirm the importance of locus of control as a factor in the motivation of students. (p. 6)  

            In discussing academic persistence and motivation, Strain (1993) has discussed internal locus of control as a valuable construct. She has stated, "…other than identifying locus of control as an important motivational factor, research has revealed little about the complex relationship between student motivational behavior and persistence in college" (p.7). She has asserted that the process of motivation is complex but clearly related to locus of control. Strain has stressed that studying student motivation is important in that it is linked to student retention and achievement. She has contended that lack of motivation is associated with the withdrawal of students from college. She has argued, however, that although factors of intrinsic motivation are a basis for students' persistence behavior, only one, concrete, measurable, motivational factor, that of locus of control, has been identified in research. Strain (1993) has asserted that the construct of locus of control has been uniquely valuable in studying academic persistence:  

            …research conducted in the late 70s…conducted at multiple institutions with large numbers of students, reported findings that locus of control was related to persistence…All…studies found that students who were more internal persisted at higher rates. (p. 31)

           The studies Strain (1993)) has discussed have contributed major findings related to locus of control as a factor in persistence. These findings have defined an aspect of weak motivation and have identified "…a motivational factor which was amenable to intervention” (p. 31). Strain has contended that motivational theory is foundational to the study of persistence.

            Strain (1993) has discussed motivational theory as that which aims to account for changes in activity. She has referred to the work of Atkinson (1964) and Atkinson & Feather (1966) concerning motivation and persistence:

             Intrinsic motivation relates to the character of the motivation that is described by goal commitment. Thus, an examination of the
             principles of motivational theory could assist in identifying factors of motivation that may be basic to student persistence. (p. 30-31)

             In summary, educational research has provided evidence of locus of control as a significant factor in achievement motivation. Evidence of this construct as predicting academic persistence and of role modeling as affecting academic success has also been found in educational literature. Further, educational research has provided evidence that role modeling by professionals affects self-esteem, professional choices, career salience, and professional success in students.

            Studies in the field of psychology have also provided evidence of locus of control as a changeable variable, which is affected by modeling. Studies in this field have further addressed the relationship of modeling to change, the relationship of models to locus of control, and the relationship of investigation of knowledge (cognitive inquiry) to locus of control. Stebbins (1975) describes studies in counseling psychology that have investigated the use of models to motivate change by observational learning.

            Dowling and Frantz (1975) have reported the results of a study designed to test the hypothesis that a facilitative model, one that communicates empathy, respect, and genuineness, enhances imitative learning by an observer. The results have provided evidence that "…if the counselor offers certain facilitative conditions …with a client, the client will be come more self-directing, more open, and flexible… " (p. 263). Numerous other studies in the field of psychology have also investigated internal locus as a changeable variable and as a variable which can be affected by modeling.

            Stone & Jackson (1975) have explored the relationship between locus of control, modeling, and instructional effectiveness in a study using university students, divided into "internals" and "externals" according to scores on Mirel's Factor of Personality Internality (1970) Their studies have indicated that modeling is instructionally effective.  Fry (1975) has also investigated subjects engaged in occupational information and vocational exploration. He has found that high cognitive inquiry, high "internal" subjects have made significant gains in all treatments but have learned most under a high degree of their own control of information studied. Fry has contended that the high internal, high inquiry subject types have had a better predisposition to learning; therefore, their gains have been superior in all treatment groups.

            In summary, literature in the field of psychology has provided evidence related to the following:

· Locus of control is a changeable variable.

· There is a positive relationship between role models and locus of control.

· A positive relationship between cognitive inquiry and locus of control exists.

· There is a positive relationship between role models and change.

            In 1994, in order to enhance understanding of the extent to which faculty’s race, gender, and ethnicity affected student achievement outcomes, the ILR-Cornell Institute for Labor Market Policies sponsored a conference, “Role Models in Education.” Six of the papers presented at the conference, entitled "Symposium:  Role Models in Education,” were published in the April 1995 issue of The Industrial and Labor Relations Review. In an introduction to the series, Ehrenberg presented an overview and review of the papers. He asserted that policies abound to increase the number of under-represented faculty in American schools and universities. These policies have been developed to provide employment for representatives of groups who have historically suffered discrimination. They have been designed, furthermore, to provide role models for minority students to enhance their educational performances. He stated that it is generally believed that increasing the proportion of minority teachers leads to improvements in minority academic performance and retention. Ehrenburg (1995) has projected the hoped-for results of increasing minority faculty:  

·        Increasing the number of minority faculty at predominantly white institutions will improve the attractiveness of these schools to minority students.

·        Increasing minority faculty will improve the possibility of minority students graduating.

·        Increasing the minority faculty populations will stimulate the flow of minority students into higher education and into academic careers.  

            In their conference paper on the effects of role modeling, “Do Teachers’ Race, Gender, and Ethnicity Matter,” Ehrenberg, Goldhaber & Brewer (1995) have reported their findings concerning the influence of teachers’ race, gender, and ethnicity on their subjective evaluations of their students. Ehrenberg has presented the findings of Rothstein and himself that attendance at historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) substantially increases the probability that African American, college students will graduate within seven years of starting college. This may be due to the greater likelihood of teachers and students being of the same race in HBCUs.

            In the role modeling symposium paper, “The Effect of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities on Future Wages of Black Students,” Constantine (1995) has presented her findings that African American students who attend HBCUs receive higher earnings than they do if they attend non-HBCUs, in some cases approximately 35% more. Again, this may be due to the greater availability of role models of the same race as the students.

            Two papers from the role modeling conference, dealt with the importance of female faculty as role models in higher education: "Changes in Women's Majors from Entrance to Graduation at Women's and Coeducational Colleges" by Solnick, and "Do Female Faculty Influence Female Students' Educational and Labor Market Attainments?" by Rothstein. Solnick (1995) has found evidence to support her theory that women who begin in traditionally female majors are more likely to shift to other majors, if they attend a women's college. She has found that women at female colleges, where there were more female role models, were more likely to risk leaving female-dominated majors than women in coed colleges. She has concluded that single‑sex schools may benefit female students by providing them more flexibility to move into majors in traditionally male-dominated fields that tend to be more rewarded in the labor market. In her study, the women's colleges yielded fewer graduates in female-dominated fields and more graduates in male-dominated fields than did the coed colleges. She has stated, “Since wages…depend in part…on field of study…determinants of college major may further understanding of labor market discrimination (p. 513).

            Rothstein (1995) has addressed the low percentage of female university faculty in the United States and the possible long term effect on female students' advanced educational and market attainments:

There is…concern that the percentage of female faculty at U.S. colleges…universities is too low…the New York Times (1993) emphasized this issue…that whereas about 20% of faculty…are women, the percentage of undergraduate women is more than double that figure. The question arises as to how female students might benefit from an increase in the percentage of female faculty. One view is that female faculty act as mentors and role models for female students, and thus promote their subsequent educational and labor market attainments. (p. 515)

           Rothstein (1995) has studied the question of the influence of female faculty on female, coeducational college students' post-graduate achievements using data from the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972. The results of her study have shown a statistically positive relationship between the percentage of female faculty and the probability that female students will attain advanced degrees. She has stated that

           The influence of the percentage of female faculty is especially interesting, because it may be that by acting as role models, or
           (indirectly) creating a favorable environment at the institution, female faculty may influence the career paths of female students. (p. 516) 

           In conclusion, literature in the fields of education, psychology, labor, and industry has provided evidence of a positive relationship between locus of control in college students and role modeling. Studies indicate that Internal Locus of Control, self-esteem, career salience, and achievement in college students are positively related to the presence of role models who display Internal Locus of Control. Leaders are not only significant in providing direction and inspiration, but as they display Internal Locus of Control they may, in fact, facilitate the development of Internal Locus of Control in observers.

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